Are Freshwater Fish Harmful? Risks Of Toxic Contamination And Safety Concerns [Updated On- 2025]

Consuming freshwater fish contaminated with PFOS poses health risks. PFOS can increase blood serum levels and may disrupt hormones and the immune system. To ensure safety, check local fish advisories for contamination levels. Being aware of these risks helps protect your health while enjoying fish.

Additionally, pollutants like PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) and pesticides can disrupt endocrine functions and affect reproductive health. Specific species, often larger or older fish, tend to have higher levels of these toxins due to bioaccumulation, where toxins concentrate up the food chain.

It is crucial to monitor fish advisories and local guidelines regarding safe consumption levels. Pregnant women, children, and those with compromised health should exercise particular caution.

Understanding the risks associated with freshwater fish consumption enables individuals to make informed choices about their diet. In the following section, we will delve into specific guidelines for safe fish consumption and explore ways to minimize exposure to contaminants while still enjoying the benefits of freshwater fish.

Table of Contents

What Are the Risks of Contaminants in Freshwater Fish?

Contaminants in freshwater fish pose significant health risks to consumers. These risks can arise from various environmental pollutants that accumulate in fish tissues over time, making them potentially hazardous to human health.

Types of Contaminants:
– Heavy metals (e.g., mercury, lead, cadmium)
– Pesticides (e.g., DDT, glyphosate)
– Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
– Microplastics
– Pathogens (e.g., bacteria, viruses)

The implications of these contaminants extend beyond health risks. The discussion involves various perspectives about their prevalence, regulation, and the socio-economic impact on communities reliant on fishing.

Heavy Metals:
Heavy metals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium, contaminate freshwater fish through industrial runoff, mining activities, and atmospheric deposition. Fish absorb these metals from their surroundings. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), mercury levels can be particularly high in larger, older fish. This accumulation can harm developing nervous systems in children, leading to cognitive impairments. A study by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2020 highlights that mercury exposure can affect over 300,000 newborns annually in the U.S. alone, reflecting a serious public health concern.
Pesticides:
Pesticides like DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) enter freshwater ecosystems through agricultural runoff. These chemicals can disrupt endocrine functions in fish and accumulate up the food chain. Research published by the National Academies of Sciences in 2019 reveals that certain pesticides can affect reproductive health in both fish and humans. Communities that consume locally caught fish may experience elevated health risks due to these contaminants, raising concerns about regulatory measures in pesticide usage.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs):
PCBs are industrial chemicals banned in many countries but persist in the environment. They can bioaccumulate in fish, leading to harmful effects on the immune system and endocrine disruption. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that PCB exposure can lead to potential carcinogenic effects. Fish advisories for PCB levels often limit consumption among vulnerable populations, highlighting public health efforts to mitigate risks.
Microplastics:
Microplastics are small plastic particles that have contaminated rivers, lakes, and oceans. Fish inadvertently consume these particles, and they can accumulate in their tissues. Studies suggest that microplastics may carry harmful chemicals that could affect human health when these fish are ingested. Research conducted by the University of California, Santa Barbara in 2021 estimates that millions of tons of microplastics enter aquatic ecosystems annually, raising alarms about the long-term impacts on both marine life and human consumers.
Pathogens:
Pathogens, including bacteria and viruses, can contaminate fish through polluted waters. Consuming such fish can lead to foodborne illnesses. The WHO reports an increase in gastrointestinal diseases linked to untreated wastewater being released into freshwater systems. Vulnerable populations, such as the elderly or immunocompromised individuals, face higher risks from these pathogens, underscoring the need for monitoring water quality in fishing regions.

Collectively, these contaminants in freshwater fish represent significant public health concerns. Awareness and regulatory measures are vital to protect consumers and aquatic ecosystems.

Which Contaminants Are Commonly Found in Freshwater Fish?

Freshwater fish commonly contain contaminants like heavy metals, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and pathogens. These substances can pose risks to human health if consumed in large quantities.

Heavy Metals
Pesticides
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Pathogens

Understanding the various contaminants in freshwater fish is crucial for assessing health risks and making informed dietary choices.

Heavy Metals: Heavy metals, such as mercury and lead, are frequently found in freshwater fish. Mercury accumulates in fish tissues through water pollution from industrial sources. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), consuming fish high in mercury can affect the nervous system and is particularly harmful to pregnant women and young children. A study by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021 noted that predatory fish like pike and bass typically have higher mercury levels.
Pesticides: Pesticides are chemicals used to control pests in agriculture and can contaminate freshwater through runoff. Studies show that chlorpyrifos, a common pesticide, has been detected in fish sampled from agricultural runoff areas. A report by the Environmental Science & Technology journal in 2020 highlights that these contaminants can disrupt endocrine functions in fish and accumulate in the food chain, potentially harming human health when consumed.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs): PCBs are industrial chemicals that were banned in the late 1970s but continue to persist in the environment. They bioaccumulate in fish, particularly in fatty tissues. According to the EPA, PCBs can lead to various health issues, including cancer and immune system problems. Research published in Environmental Research in 2019 found that freshwater fish in contaminated lakes showed significant PCB concentrations, raising concerns for consumers.
Pathogens: Freshwater fish can harbor pathogens such as bacteria and parasites, which can affect human health. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) warns that consuming undercooked or contaminated fish can lead to foodborne illnesses. Tapeworms and Vibrio bacteria are notable examples. A study in the Journal of Food Protection in 2022 reported increased cases of foodborne illness linked to improperly handled freshwater fish.

Understanding these contaminants allows consumers to make informed choices regarding the consumption of freshwater fish. Awareness of the sources and risks associated with these contaminants is vital for public health and safety.

How Do Toxins Accumulate in Freshwater Fish?

Toxins accumulate in freshwater fish primarily through a process called bioaccumulation, which happens when fish absorb contaminants present in their environment. These contaminants can originate from various sources and have significant health implications for both the fish and humans who consume them.

Sources of Toxins:
– Industrial Discharge: Factories often release pollutants like heavy metals (mercury, lead) into waterways. A study by C. M. S. R. de Oliveira et al. (2020) highlighted mercury levels in river fish in Brazil, indicating widespread contamination.
– Agricultural Runoff: Fertilizers and pesticides can wash into lakes and rivers. Research by Shalaby et al. (2019) found that runoffs in agricultural areas significantly increase pesticide residues in fish.
Bioaccumulation Process:
– Uptake: Fish absorb toxins directly from water through their gills and skin. They can also ingest toxins by consuming contaminated food, such as smaller fish or aquatic organisms.
– Storage: Some contaminants are not easily excreted and accumulate in fatty tissues over time. For example, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can take years to break down in fish tissues (Harris et al., 2016).
Food Chain Effects:
– Trophic Levels: As smaller fish consume contaminated organisms, they collect toxins, which are then passed up the food chain. Larger predators, including sport fish, can have significantly higher toxin concentrations.
– Biomagnification: Toxins become more concentrated at higher trophic levels. For instance, studies show that larger freshwater fish can contain mercury levels up to ten times higher than those found in smaller fish (Morel et al., 2017).
Health Implications:
– Human Consumption: Eating contaminated fish can lead to serious health issues, including neurological damage and developmental problems in children. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued guidelines on fish consumption to reduce mercury exposure.
– Ecosystem Impact: High toxin levels can affect fish populations, decrease reproductive success, and alter aquatic ecosystems. A study by G. C. T. Wong et al. (2018) observed a sharp decline in fish populations linked to water pollution.

Through these complex interactions, freshwater fish become a significant vector for toxins, which can ultimately impact human health and the environment. Addressing these issues requires effective pollution management practices and awareness among consumers.

What Health Risks Are Associated with Consuming Contaminated Freshwater Fish?

Consuming contaminated freshwater fish poses various health risks that can significantly affect human health.

Heavy metal accumulation
Bacterial infections
Parasite transmission
Chemical pollutants
Allergic reactions

These risks highlight the complex nature of seafood safety and illustrate the need for consumers to be vigilant.

Heavy Metal Accumulation:
Heavy metal accumulation occurs when fish absorb harmful metals like arsenic, mercury, and lead from polluted waters. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), mercury exposure can cause neurological and cognitive deficits, particularly in fetuses and young children. A study by the EPA found that fish from highly polluted areas can contain mercury levels surpassing safe consumption limits. Pregnant women are especially advised to avoid species known to have high mercury levels, such as certain types of tuna.
Bacterial Infections:
Bacterial infections occur when freshwater fish harbor harmful bacteria such as Salmonella or Vibrio. These bacteria can cause gastrointestinal illnesses, leading to symptoms like diarrhea and vomiting. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that improper handling or cooking of contaminated fish can lead to severe foodborne illnesses. Case studies, such as outbreaks traced back to contaminated fish in certain lakes, underscore the importance of safe preparation practices.
Parasite Transmission:
Parasite transmission involves infections caused by parasites such as tapeworms or roundworms found in freshwater fish. Consuming undercooked fish can lead to parasitic infections, which may require medical treatment. The CDC warns that certain parasites can cause abdominal pain and digestive issues. Specific cases, such as those related to undercooked salmon, illustrate the potential health dangers associated with consuming freshwater fish without proper cooking.
Chemical Pollutants:
Chemical pollutants encompass a range of hazardous substances, including pesticides and industrial chemicals, that may enter aquatic ecosystems. These pollutants can bioaccumulate in fish, leading to potential human health risks upon consumption. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as a significant concern with links to cancer and other health issues. Fish advisories often list restrictions on consumption based on local contamination levels.
Allergic Reactions:
Allergic reactions can result from consuming freshwater fish due to specific proteins that trigger allergies in susceptible individuals. Symptoms range from mild irritation to severe anaphylaxis. Studies show an increase in fish allergies, especially in children. It is essential for people with known food allergies to be cautious with freshwater fish, as cross-reactivity with other fish species may also occur.

In summary, understanding these health risks is essential for making informed choices about consuming freshwater fish. Awareness and proactive measures can help minimize potential harm from contaminated sources.

What Symptoms Indicate Toxicity from Freshwater Fish Consumption?

The symptoms that indicate toxicity from freshwater fish consumption can vary widely and may potentially affect different body systems.

Neurological symptoms
Gastrointestinal symptoms
Cardiovascular symptoms
Immune-related symptoms
Respiratory symptoms

These symptoms underscore the importance of understanding the nuances of fish consumption and the potential risks involved. Different fish species may carry unique types of toxins, leading to varying symptoms.

Neurological Symptoms:
Neurological symptoms can arise from toxins present in certain freshwater fish. Heavy metals, such as mercury, can lead to symptoms like dizziness, headaches, and tremors. According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2021), long-term exposure to mercury can severely impact neurological function and development.
Gastrointestinal Symptoms:
Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea that may result from contamination with pathogens or chemicals in fish. A 2020 research article by Lussier et al. indicates that toxins from harmful algal blooms can accumulate in aquatic organisms, leading to gastrointestinal distress upon consumption.
Cardiovascular Symptoms:
Cardiovascular symptoms can manifest as increased heart rate, high blood pressure, and chest pain. These symptoms may be associated with the consumption of fish contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which have been linked to cardiovascular health risks. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR, 2019) highlights that chronic exposure to PCBs can lead to heart health complications.
Immune-related Symptoms:
Immune-related symptoms can include increased susceptibility to infections and allergic reactions. For instance, some freshwater fish can harbor parasites that compromise immune function. Research published by García-Rosado et al. (2021) provides evidence that fish contaminated with parasites can pose significant health risks, particularly to individuals with weakened immune systems.
Respiratory Symptoms:
Respiratory symptoms may occur if toxins are inhaled or absorbed through the skin while handling contaminated fish. Symptoms can include coughing, wheezing, and difficulty breathing. Studies on fish handling protocols suggest that exposure to certain chemicals, like pesticides, in aquaculture settings can lead to respiratory issues among fishers and processors (Rodrigues et al., 2018).

How Can Eating Contaminated Freshwater Fish Affect Long-term Health?

Eating contaminated freshwater fish can significantly impact long-term health due to the presence of toxins, heavy metals, and parasites found in these fish. These factors can lead to serious health issues, including neurological damage, reproductive problems, and increased risk of cancer.

Toxins: Freshwater fish may accumulate harmful chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, from polluted water sources. A study by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR, 2019) highlighted that long-term exposure to PCBs can lead to immune system suppression and hormonal disruptions.
Heavy Metals: Contaminants such as mercury are often found in freshwater fish. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 2020) reports that mercury exposure can cause neurological impairment and developmental issues in children. A study conducted by Grandjean and Landrigan (2020) connected long-term mercury exposure to cognitive deficits in adults.
Parasites: Freshwater fish can host parasites like the mink tapeworm or various species of flukes. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2018) warns that consuming undercooked or contaminated fish can lead to parasitic infections, which may cause gastrointestinal problems and long-term complications.
Cancer Risk: Prolonged consumption of contaminated freshwater fish has been associated with an increased risk of certain cancers. A risk assessment by the National Cancer Institute (NCI, 2021) indicated that chemicals found in contaminated fish could potentially lead to carcinogenic effects, particularly affecting the liver and reproductive organs.
Reproductive Issues: Chemical exposure from contaminated fish can affect reproductive health. A study by Vandenberg et al. (2012) found that endocrine disruptors prevalent in polluted aquatic environments can lead to fertility issues and developmental abnormalities in offspring.

In summary, consuming contaminated freshwater fish poses significant risks to long-term health, resulting from toxins, heavy metals, parasites, increased cancer risk, and reproductive issues.

How Can Consumers Mitigate the Risks of Eating Freshwater Fish?

Consumers can mitigate the risks of eating freshwater fish by choosing fish from safe sources, preparing fish properly, and being informed about contaminants.

Choosing safe sources: Select freshwater fish from reputable sources and regions known for low contamination levels. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and state fish and wildlife agencies provide guidelines on which fish are safe to eat. For example, fish from unpolluted lakes may have fewer toxins compared to those from industrial areas. The FDA recommends checking local advisories, especially regarding mercury and other pollutants.

Preparing fish properly: Cooking fish thoroughly can kill harmful bacteria and parasites. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) advises cooking fish to an internal temperature of 145°F (63°C) to ensure safety. Avoiding raw fish dishes, such as sushi or ceviche, can also reduce the risk of foodborne illnesses.

Being informed about contaminants: Freshwater fish may contain toxins like mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2017), mercury can affect neurological development in children and may pose risks for pregnant women. Consumers should limit the intake of larger fish species, as they tend to accumulate more toxins over time. The FDA advises pregnant women and children to avoid fish with high mercury levels, such as largemouth bass.

By following these strategies, consumers can enjoy freshwater fish while reducing their risk of exposure to harmful contaminants.

What Regulations Exist for Ensuring Freshwater Fish Safety?

Regulations exist to ensure the safety of freshwater fish, primarily to protect public health and maintain environmental standards.

federal guidelines (e.g., FDA and EPA standards)
state regulations (varying by region)
inspection protocols (for processing facilities)
fishing quotas and limits (to prevent overfishing)
contamination monitoring (pesticides, heavy metals)
aquaculture standards (for farm-raised fish)
labeling requirements (for consumer awareness)

The above regulatory frameworks aim to provide a comprehensive approach to freshwater fish safety. Each aspect has its own significance and potential implications.

Federal Guidelines: Federal guidelines establish the foundational safety standards for freshwater fish. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set limits on tolerable levels of contaminants such as mercury and pesticides. These agencies collaborate to ensure that fish sold in the market are safe for consumption, thereby safeguarding public health.
State Regulations: State regulations can differ significantly based on local environmental conditions and fish species prevalent in the area. Each state often has its own set of rules concerning fishing licenses, species conservation, and safety checks. For example, some states may impose stricter limits on catches from certain lakes, where pollution levels are higher, ensuring fish from those areas are not sold to consumers.
Inspection Protocols: Inspection protocols are vital for processing facilities to ensure compliance with safety regulations. The FDA mandates regular inspections of fish processing plants to monitor hygiene and safety practices. Facilities must pass these inspections to operate legally. Non-compliance can lead to severe penalties, including shutdowns or product recalls.
Fishing Quotas and Limits: Fishing quotas and limits aim to maintain sustainable fish populations. These regulations prevent overfishing which can lead to species decline or ecosystem disruptions. For example, the National Marine Fisheries Service regulates the number of certain fish species that can be caught to maintain healthy populations and support conservation efforts.
Contamination Monitoring: Monitoring for contamination of freshwater fish is essential for public health. Agencies regularly test fish for levels of toxic substances like heavy metals and pesticides. Findings are often communicated to the public through advisories, informing them of potential health risks associated with fish from certain areas.
Aquaculture Standards: Aquaculture, or fish farming, also has specific regulations to ensure the safety of farm-raised fish. These standards govern water quality, feeding practices, and use of medications to minimize the risk of disease. Compliance with these standards can lead to healthier fish that are safer for consumption.
Labeling Requirements: Labeling requirements inform consumers about the source and quality of fish they purchase. Information such as whether the fish is wild-caught or farm-raised, along with any certifications, enables consumers to make informed choices. The FDA mandates that labels must not be misleading and should accurately reflect the product’s origins.

These various regulations provide multiple layers of protection, ensuring that freshwater fish are safe for consumption and that fish populations remain sustainable for future generations.

How Can Consumers Identify Safe Freshwater Fish Sources?

Consumers can identify safe freshwater fish sources by checking for certifications, understanding local fishing regulations, and being informed about contamination levels in specific bodies of water.

Certifications: Look for fish that have certifications from organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) or the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC). These organizations assess fishing practices for sustainability and safety. They ensure that the fish are caught or farmed in ways that do not harm the environment, and they meet safety standards.

Local regulations: Familiarize yourself with your region’s fishing regulations. Many local government bodies provide information on which fish species are safe to consume. They also inform consumers about protected species. For instance, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regularly issues advisories on fish consumption based on assessments of water quality.

Contamination levels: Be aware of contamination risks specific to your area. For example, certain lakes and rivers may have high levels of mercury or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) due to industrial pollution. The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) provides resources on these issues. Consumer awareness is critical. Research shows that about 30% of freshwater fish can contain unsafe levels of mercury, particularly larger predatory fish (Oken et al., 2005).

Purchasing from reputable sources: Buy fish from trusted retailers or markets that can provide information on the source of their seafood. Ask about farmed versus wild-caught fish. Generally, farmed fish undergo more monitoring for contaminants compared to wild-caught fish.

Following health recommendations: Consult health guidelines on fish consumption. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) advises limiting consumption of certain types of fish for vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women and young children, due to higher contamination risks.

By following these points, consumers can make informed decisions about safe freshwater fish and minimize health risks associated with contamination.

What Are the Alternatives to Consuming Freshwater Fish for Health-Conscious Consumers?

Health-conscious consumers have several alternatives to consuming freshwater fish, including plant-based proteins, seafood alternatives, sustainable farmed fish, and fortified foods.

Plant-based proteins
Seaweed and algae
Sustainable farmed fish
Seafood alternatives
Fortified foods

Exploring these options can help consumers maintain a nutritious diet without the concerns associated with freshwater fish.

Plant-based proteins: Plant-based proteins refer to protein sources derived from plants. Examples include beans, lentils, tofu, and quinoa. According to a study published in the “Journal of the American Dietetic Association” (2016), plant-based diets can provide sufficient protein while offering additional health benefits. These foods are low in saturated fats and high in fiber. Research shows they can reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
Seaweed and algae: Seaweed and algae are nutrient-rich foods that provide omega-3 fatty acids, proteins, and various vitamins and minerals. A study by the “Marine Drugs” journal (2018) highlights their health benefits, including improved heart health and anti-inflammatory properties. Seaweed-based products, such as nori and spirulina, are gaining popularity as alternatives to fish for omega-3 intake.
Sustainable farmed fish: Sustainable farmed fish are raised under responsible aquaculture practices that mitigate environmental impacts. The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) advocates for selecting certified sustainable seafood to support healthy ecosystems. Farmed fish like tilapia and trout can be lower in contaminants compared to some wild freshwater options. The Monterey Bay Seafood Watch program promotes these choices.
Seafood alternatives: Seafood alternatives, including products made from plant proteins or other ingredients, allow consumers to enjoy fish-like flavors and textures without consuming actual fish. Brands are increasingly creating fish-free sushi, crab cakes, and fish fillets. The “Plant Based Foods Association” reports a rise in the market for these alternatives, catering to growing health and environmental concerns.
Fortified foods: Fortified foods are those enhanced with nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, or minerals. Examples include certain types of plant-based spreads or dairy alternatives fortified with calcium and vitamin D. The “National Institutes of Health” (NIH) recognizes fortified foods as useful for individuals who may not get enough nutrients from their regular diet, particularly if they are avoiding fish.

These alternatives can help health-conscious consumers meet their nutritional needs while managing their health choices effectively.

Which Other Protein Sources Are Recommended for Avoiding Contaminants?

Several protein sources are recommended for avoiding contaminants. These sources include plant-based proteins, certain seafood, and processed meat alternatives.

Plant-based protein sources
Wild-caught fish
Organic poultry and eggs
Grass-fed beef
Legumes and beans
Fermented soy products

To further explore these protein sources, let’s detail each type and their benefits regarding contaminant avoidance.

Plant-based protein sources: Plant-based protein sources refer to foods derived from plants that provide protein, such as lentils, beans, nuts, and seeds. These sources typically have lower levels of environmental contaminants compared to animal proteins. A 2017 study by Melina et al. highlights that plant proteins do not accumulate harmful substances like mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), often found in fish and meat.
Wild-caught fish: Wild-caught fish are fish that are captured in their natural habitat, as opposed to being farmed. They can be a healthier choice compared to farmed varieties, which may contain higher levels of contaminants due to their feed and the conditions in which they are raised. According to the Environmental Defense Fund, species such as salmon and sardines, when sourced responsibly, tend to have lower contaminant levels.
Organic poultry and eggs: Organic poultry and eggs come from birds raised without synthetic pesticides, antibiotics, or genetically modified organisms. The USDA defines organic meat as being produced under specific conditions to promote animal welfare. Research has shown that organic poultry and eggs typically contain fewer contaminants than conventional options, making them a safer protein choice.
Grass-fed beef: Grass-fed beef comes from cattle that primarily eat grass and forage. This method of raising cattle is associated with lower levels of hormones and antibiotics compared to grain-fed livestock. A study conducted by the USDA found that grass-fed beef contains higher concentrations of beneficial omega-3 fatty acids and lower levels of harmful residues that can arise from conventional farming practices.
Legumes and beans: Legumes and beans are seeds from plants in the legume family, which include lentils, chickpeas, and various types of beans. These foods are rich in protein and nutrients while being low in contaminants. They do not pose significant contamination risks and are a staple in many diets across the world, offering a sustainable protein option.
Fermented soy products: Fermented soy products, such as tempeh and miso, are derived from soybeans that have undergone fermentation. This process not only enhances flavor but also increases digestibility and nutrient absorption. Fermentation can reduce the presence of certain anti-nutrients and contaminants often associated with raw soy products, according to research by Messina (2016).

These protein sources present a variety of options for consumers who wish to minimize their exposure to contaminants while maintaining a balanced diet.

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