Are Fish Polluted? Discover the Health Risks of Contaminated Seafood and Toxic Pollutants

Fish can be polluted by harmful chemicals like PFAS, PCBs, and heavy metals. Laboratory testing helps check pollution levels. Freshwater fish often show high levels of pollutants. Eating contaminated fish poses health risks, including cancer and neurological issues. Knowing these risks is essential for safe consumption.

Fish that live in polluted waters absorb these toxins through their skin and gills. Larger and older fish are often more contaminated, as they accumulate higher levels of toxins through their diet. For instance, species like swordfish and shark frequently contain elevated mercury levels. Consuming contaminated seafood can lead to various health problems, including developmental issues and organ damage.

To minimize risks, it is essential to stay informed about seafood sources and consumption guidelines. Regulatory bodies often provide recommendations on which fish to avoid and how often it is safe to eat certain species.

Understanding the pollution of fish is crucial for making informed dietary choices. Next, we will explore the specific types of pollutants that affect fish and how they impact both marine ecosystems and human health.

What Causes Fish to Become Polluted?

Fish become polluted primarily due to contamination from various sources such as industrial waste, agricultural runoff, and urban sewage.

The main causes of fish pollution include:
1. Industrial waste discharge
2. Agricultural runoff
3. Urban sewage
4. Heavy metals
5. Plastic waste
6. Pesticides and herbicides

Each cause presents different perspectives and potential solutions that vary depending on environmental, economic, and public health considerations. Understanding these complexities helps in addressing the pollution problem effectively.

Industrial Waste Discharge: Industrial waste discharge causes fish pollution by releasing harmful chemicals directly into water bodies. This wastewater often contains toxins, which can accumulate in fish tissues. According to a study by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021, around 30% of global water bodies are impacted by industrial pollution. An example is the mercury contamination in fish from industrial discharges in Minamata Bay, Japan, which led to severe health issues for local communities.
Agricultural Runoff: Agricultural runoff contributes to fish pollution through fertilizers and pesticides leaching into water systems. This runoff stimulates algae blooms, which reduce oxygen levels and harm aquatic life. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported in 2020 that 60% of rivers and streams have been affected by agricultural pollution. The Death Zone in the Gulf of Mexico, caused by runoff from agricultural fertilizers, serves as a well-known case of ecological disruption impacting fish populations.
Urban Sewage: Urban sewage leads to fish pollution when untreated wastewater is discharged into waterways. This sewage introduces pathogens and nutrients that can devastate aquatic ecosystems. A 2019 study by the United Nations revealed that 80% of wastewater worldwide is released without treatment, significantly affecting fish health and safety.
Heavy Metals: Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, and mercury pollute fish through industrial processes and contaminated water. These metals accumulate in fish bodies, posing serious health risks. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) emphasized the dangers of mercury in fish consumption, especially for vulnerable populations like pregnant women and children. Consumption of mercury-contaminated fish is linked to neurological issues.
Plastic Waste: Plastic waste in oceans leads to fish pollution by causing physical harm and chemical contamination through microplastics. Research published in 2021 by the journal Science found that over 800 species of marine life ingest plastic, leading to bioaccumulation of harmful substances. This pollution threatens food safety as microplastics can enter the human food chain through fish.
Pesticides and Herbicides: Pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture contaminate water bodies, actively harming fish and their habitats. According to a study by the Pesticide Action Network in 2022, these chemicals can disrupt endocrine systems in fish, leading to reproductive and developmental issues. An instance of this pollution is evident in the paramo ecosystem of Colombia, where pesticide runoff has severely impacted local fish populations.

Addressing fish pollution requires a multifaceted approach, emphasizing environmental regulations, public awareness, and sustainable practices to ensure the health of aquatic ecosystems and public safety.

What Types of Pollutants Are Commonly Found in Fish?

Fish commonly contain pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, and industrial chemicals.

Heavy metals
Pesticides
Industrial chemicals
Microplastics
Pharmaceuticals

Different perspectives exist regarding the impact of fish pollution. Some argue that wild fish are generally less polluted than farmed fish, while others believe that specific regions face more significant contamination due to local industrial activity. Furthermore, some consumers suggest that the health benefits of eating fish outweigh potential risks, while others advocate for avoiding fish entirely due to pollution concerns.

The types of pollutants in fish pose significant health risks and underscore the importance of monitoring fish populations and their environments.

Heavy Metals:
Heavy metals, such as mercury, lead, and cadmium, are common contaminants in fish. Fish absorb these metals through contaminated water and food sources. Mercury is particularly harmful; it converts to methylmercury in aquatic environments, which accumulates in fish tissue over time. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that mercury exposure can adversely affect neurological function, especially in developing fetuses and young children. For instance, a study by environmental scientists at the University of California found elevated mercury levels in predatory fish species like tuna and swordfish.
Pesticides:
Pesticides often enter aquatic ecosystems through runoff from agricultural land. These chemicals can accumulate in fish tissue, leading to harmful biological effects. Organophosphate pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are notable examples. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), chronic exposure to these chemicals can disrupt hormonal regulation and affect reproductive health. A report from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service documented traces of pesticides in fish from rivers near agricultural areas, signaling the urgent need for monitoring.
Industrial Chemicals:
Industrial pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, can enter marine ecosystems through industrial waste disposal. Fish accumulate these chemicals, posing risks to human health upon consumption. The EPA notes that long-term exposure to PCBs can cause cancer and immune system problems. Additionally, research published in Environmental Science & Technology highlighted the prevalence of these contaminants in fish caught near industrial regions.
Microplastics:
Microplastics are tiny plastic particles found in the ocean and waterways. Fish ingest these particles, which can lead to internal injuries and transfer of harmful substances to consumers. A study by Oceana found microplastics in various fish species, raising concerns about their effects on human health. Microplastics can absorb toxins present in the environment, which may accumulate in the food chain. The growing prevalence of microplastics has prompted international organizations to call for action to reduce plastic pollution.
Pharmaceuticals:
Pharmaceuticals, such as hormones and antibiotics, can also be detected in fish. These substances enter water bodies through wastewater discharge and agricultural runoff. They can disrupt endocrine functions in fish and have potential effects on human health. Research published by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) indicates that the presence of human pharmaceuticals in water can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. This calls into question the safety of consuming fish from polluted waters.

Understanding these pollutants helps consumers make informed choices about their fish consumption and highlight the need for environmental protections.

How Do Heavy Metals Affect Fish and Human Health?

Heavy metals negatively impact both fish and human health by causing toxicity, bioaccumulation, and various health issues. These metals include lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic, which can enter aquatic ecosystems through industrial discharge, urban runoff, and mining activities.

Toxic effects on fish: Heavy metals can accumulate in the tissues of fish. This accumulation can lead to a variety of harmful effects, including:

Impaired growth: Fish exposed to heavy metals may experience stunted growth due to disrupted hormonal functions and metabolic processes.
Behavioral changes: Research shows that mercury exposure alters fish behavior, hindering their ability to evade predators (Baker et al., 2015).
Reproductive issues: Heavy metal exposure can lead to reproductive abnormalities, resulting in decreased fertility and lower offspring survival rates (Rao et al., 2018).

Bioaccumulation in the food chain: When fish absorb heavy metals, they can accumulate these toxins over time. Consequences include:

Increased concentration: Larger predatory fish often have higher concentrations of heavy metals, posing risks to species at the top of the food chain, including humans.
Transfer to humans: Consumption of contaminated fish can lead to heavy metal exposure in humans, posing significant health risks (Meagher et al., 2019).

Health effects on humans: Consuming contaminated fish can cause various adverse health outcomes:

Neurological disorders: Mercury is a neurotoxin linked to cognitive impairments and developmental issues in children. Exposure can lead to delayed developmental milestones and learning disabilities (Rice et al., 2014).
Kidney damage: Cadmium exposure can have severe effects on kidney function, potentially leading to kidney disease (Jarup, 2003).
Carcinogenic risks: Lead and arsenic have been associated with increased cancer risks, affecting various organ systems (ATSDR, 2007).

In summary, heavy metals pose significant threats to both fish and human health. These poisons can lead to toxicity, bioaccumulation, and serious health issues, underscoring the importance of monitoring and reducing environmental pollution.

What Role Do Industrial Chemicals Play in Fish Contamination?

Industrial chemicals play a significant role in fish contamination by entering aquatic ecosystems and accumulating in fish populations, posing health risks to consumers and wildlife.

Types of industrial chemicals affecting fish:
– Heavy metals (e.g., mercury, lead)
– Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
– Nutrient pollutants (e.g., nitrates and phosphates)
– Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
– Pharmaceuticals and personal care products

Various perspectives exist regarding the impact of industrial chemicals on fish contamination. Some argue that regulations are effective, while others believe they are inadequate. Additionally, some experts highlight the potential for biological magnification, wherein small amounts of pollutants become concentrated in fish tissues over time.

Understanding the roles these chemicals play is crucial, as each type has distinct effects on aquatic life and human health.

Heavy Metals:
Heavy metals contribute to fish contamination through industrial discharges and runoff from mining activities. Metals like mercury accumulate in water bodies and can enter the food chain. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), mercury can impair neurological development in humans and is particularly harmful to pregnant women and children. A study by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2016 reported that fish from contaminated waters often exceed safe mercury levels.
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
Persistent organic pollutants are synthetic chemicals that resist degradation and accumulate in the environment. These include pesticides and industrial chemicals, such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls). POPs can accumulate in fatty tissues of fish and affect reproductive and immune systems. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants aims to reduce or eliminate the release of these substances, recognizing their global impact. Research by the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) highlighted their long-term presence in the food chain.
Nutrient Pollutants:
Nutrient pollutants such as nitrates and phosphates result from agricultural runoff and wastewater discharge. They can lead to algal blooms in water bodies, which deplete oxygen and create dead zones that harm fish populations. A study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in 2018 noted that nutrient pollution is a leading cause of declining fish stocks in many regions.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):
Volatile organic compounds enter aquatic ecosystems through industrial emissions and spills. VOCs can dissolve in water and impact fish health by affecting their ability to breathe and reproduce. Research by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicates that exposure to certain VOCs can lead to adverse effects on the liver and kidneys in aquatic organisms.
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products:
Pharmaceuticals and personal care products enter water bodies through wastewater treatment plants. These chemicals can disrupt endocrine functions in fish, leading to reproductive problems. A study conducted by the Geological Society of America in 2019 found detectable levels of hormones in various fish species, raising concerns about population declines and ecosystem health.

In summary, industrial chemicals significantly contribute to fish contamination, affecting both aquatic life and human health. Understanding each type’s specific impact is essential for creating effective regulations and conservation strategies.

How Are Microplastics Ingested by Marine Life?

Microplastics are ingested by marine life primarily through two processes: direct consumption and accidental intake. Marine organisms, such as fish and shellfish, often mistake microplastics for food. They may inhale or eat microplastics along with their natural diet. Small plankton also ingest microplastics, which then enter the food web.

Ingested microplastics may accumulate in the bodies of marine animals. This accumulation can occur in the digestive system or within tissues. The ingestion often leads to physical harm and chemical exposure. Marine life may experience reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even death due to these pollutants.

Research indicates that microplastics can travel up the food chain, affecting larger predators like fish and marine mammals. As a result, human consumption of seafood also raises health concerns regarding the intake of microplastics. Understanding this process highlights the importance of reducing plastic pollution to protect marine ecosystems and human health.

What Are the Health Risks Associated with Eating Contaminated Fish?

The health risks associated with eating contaminated fish include serious illnesses caused by toxins, pathogens, and heavy metals. Consuming these contaminants can lead to a variety of health issues for individuals.

Mercury Poisoning
Diarrheal Diseases
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Histamine Fish Poisoning
Long-term Neurological Effects

Eating contaminated fish poses significant health risks that can vary in severity based on the type of contaminant and the individual’s health status.

Mercury Poisoning: Mercury poisoning occurs when individuals ingest fish that contain high levels of mercury. Mercury is a toxic metal found in water, which fish absorb as they feed. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), pregnant women and young children are particularly vulnerable. Symptoms may include impaired cognitive function, motor skills defects, and developmental delays. A study published by the National Institutes of Health in 2021 suggested that frequent consumption of large predatory fish, like swordfish and shark, raises mercury levels in the body.
Diarrheal Diseases: Diarrheal diseases can result from consuming fish contaminated with pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. Fish can carry Vibrio, Salmonella, and parasites that cause gastrointestinal illness. The World Health Organization states that unsafe seafood accounts for a significant number of foodborne illnesses worldwide. Symptoms often include waterborne diarrhea and abdominal cramps, which can lead to dehydration if severe.
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: Paralytic shellfish poisoning occurs when individuals eat shellfish that have accumulated toxins from algal blooms. These harmful toxins affect the nervous system. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) notes that symptoms can appear within a few hours of consumption and can include tingling, numbness, and in severe cases, respiratory failure. Cases have been documented along the coasts of the United States, alerting health officials to the dangers of consuming shellfish during bloom seasons.
Histamine Fish Poisoning: Histamine fish poisoning happens when fish are improperly stored, allowing bacteria to convert histidine in the fish flesh to histamine. This can lead to an allergic-like reaction upon consumption. Symptoms typically include rash, headache, and gastrointestinal distress. The CDC estimates that this type of poisoning causes several outbreaks each year, particularly with improperly stored tuna and mackerel.
Long-term Neurological Effects: Long-term neurological effects arise from chronic exposure to contaminants present in fish. For instance, consuming fish contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) can lead to cognitive decline and developmental issues in children. A 2020 study by researchers at Harvard University linked PCB exposure from fish consumption to an increased risk of neurodegenerative diseases in adults. Ongoing research continues to explore the lingering effects of these contaminants on the human nervous system.

These potential health risks underline the importance of monitoring fish sources and consumption frequency, particularly for vulnerable populations such as pregnant women and children. Awareness and education about the types of fish that are safest to eat can mitigate these health concerns.

How Can You Determine if Seafood is Polluted?

You can determine if seafood is polluted by checking for contamination levels, examining where it was caught, and looking at advisories from health agencies.

To understand the potential pollution in seafood, consider these factors:

Contamination Levels: Many seafood species may contain harmful pollutants like mercury, PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), and pesticides. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides guidelines that indicate unsafe levels of mercury, particularly in larger fish like swordfish and shark. For instance, the EPA’s 2019 report noted that certain species can have mercury levels exceeding 0.3 parts per million, which poses health risks to humans.
Source of Catch: The environment from which the seafood is sourced greatly influences its pollution levels. Seafood from industrialized or heavily polluted waters often absorbs more harmful substances. For example, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) assesses water bodies and issues advisories on seafood safety. Their 2020 study indicated that seafood harvested from polluted estuaries has a higher likelihood of contamination.
Health Advisories: Health agencies regularly issue advisories regarding safe consumption levels of various fish. For instance, the FDA and the EPA jointly released a report in 2021 that includes recommended guidelines for pregnant women and children, urging them to avoid certain high-mercury fish and suggesting safer alternatives.
Testing and Certifications: Laboratory testing can determine the levels of contaminants in seafood. Look for certifications from organizations like the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) or the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC), which indicate that seafood has been tested and meets sustainability and safety standards.

By understanding these factors, consumers can make informed decisions and reduce the risk of consuming polluted seafood.

What Steps Can Consumers Take to Minimize Exposure to Polluted Fish?

Consumers can take several steps to minimize exposure to polluted fish.

Choose fish from safer sources.
Limit consumption of high-mercury fish.
Stay informed about local water quality and advisories.
Opt for fish with lower contamination levels.
Prepare and cook fish properly.
Diversify your seafood choices.

These steps are essential for maintaining health while navigating the complexities of seafood consumption. Each point provides a unique perspective that includes safety practices and consumer habits.

Choose Fish from Safer Sources: Choosing fish from safer sources involves selecting seafood that is certified or labeled as sustainable. The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) and the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC) provide certifications indicating responsible sourcing practices. Research shows that fish sourced from well-managed fisheries have lower pollutant levels. A study by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) in 2020 confirmed that certified seafood typically complies with stricter contaminant standards.
Limit Consumption of High-Mercury Fish: Limiting consumption of high-mercury fish is crucial to reduce exposure to this toxic metal. Fish species such as shark, swordfish, and king mackerel are known for their high mercury content. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that women who are pregnant, nursing, or planning to become pregnant avoid these fish. Studies indicate that a high mercury intake can lead to severe health implications, including neurological damage.
Stay Informed about Local Water Quality and Advisories: Staying informed about local water quality and advisories is essential for safe seafood consumption. Local health departments frequently issue advisories regarding fish caught in nearby waters. Some regions may report higher levels of pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins. The American Fisheries Society emphasizes the importance of being aware of these warnings for local water bodies, as they can greatly influence fish safety.
Opt for Fish with Lower Contamination Levels: Opting for fish with lower contamination levels includes selecting species that are less likely to accumulate pollutants and toxins. Fish such as sardines, tilapia, and catfish are examples known to have lower levels of harmful substances. The EDF has published recommendations for fish with minimal contamination levels, which can guide consumers in making safe choices.
Prepare and Cook Fish Properly: Preparing and cooking fish properly can help reduce the intake of contaminants. Methods such as trimming fat, removing skin, and cooking at high temperatures can lower pollutant levels. Research shows that cooking can eliminate some contaminants, though it does not remove all. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), proper cooking techniques are vital to minimizing potential health risks.
Diversify Your Seafood Choices: Diversifying your seafood choices helps to mitigate the risk of exposure to any single type of contaminant. By consuming a variety of fish and shellfish, consumers can balance their intake and reduce overall exposure. Nutritionists recommend that consumers take advantage of various species available in markets, ensuring a broader nutrient profile and lowering contamination risk.

Understanding and implementing these steps can empower consumers to make informed decisions, protecting their health while enjoying seafood.

What Responsibilities Do Governments and Regulatory Bodies Have in Managing Fish Pollution?

Governments and regulatory bodies have critical responsibilities in managing fish pollution. These responsibilities include setting regulations, monitoring pollution levels, enforcing compliance, and engaging with stakeholders.

Establishing regulations and guidelines
Monitoring environmental and water quality
Enforcing legal compliance and penalties
Conducting research on pollution impacts
Promoting public awareness and education
Collaborating with international organizations and neighboring countries

Governments must maintain a balance between regulations and the economy, particularly in the fishing industry. Some may argue that strict regulations can harm local economies that rely on fishing.

Establishing regulations and guidelines:
Establishing regulations and guidelines involves creating laws to protect water bodies and fish populations from pollution. Governments set maximum allowable levels for harmful substances in water. These guidelines help regulate industries and minimize their impact. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the United States has established water quality criteria to maintain healthy aquatic ecosystems. Standards may vary according to local and national contexts but usually aim to safeguard both public health and the environment.
Monitoring environmental and water quality:
Monitoring environmental and water quality entails regularly assessing pollution levels in water bodies. This process allows authorities to identify sources of pollution and protect public health. Various methods, such as water sampling and biological assessments, are employed. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), consistent monitoring helps detect potential health risks in seafood, ensuring that fish are safe for consumption.
Enforcing legal compliance and penalties:
Enforcing legal compliance and penalties involves ensuring that industries adhere to environmental regulations. Violations can lead to fines and other penalties. For instance, a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported significant fines issued to companies polluting coastal waters. These actions deter further pollution and reinforce the importance of regulatory compliance.
Conducting research on pollution impacts:
Conducting research on pollution impacts is essential for understanding how pollutants affect fish health and ecosystem stability. This research informs policy-making and guides management strategies. The journal “Environmental Science & Technology” published studies showing that contaminants like heavy metals adversely impact aquatic life. Such findings drive governments to adapt regulations based on scientific data.
Promoting public awareness and education:
Promoting public awareness and education about fish pollution helps communities understand the risks associated with consuming contaminated seafood. Governments often launch campaigns to share information on safe fishing practices and the importance of pollution prevention. Community programs can increase engagement and foster protective behaviors. The FDA’s advisory regarding mercury levels in fish emphasizes public awareness as a vital responsibility.
Collaborating with international organizations and neighboring countries:
Collaborating with international organizations and neighboring countries is vital for managing cross-border pollution. Many fish migrate through different jurisdictions, making coordination essential. Agreements on shared water resources, like the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement between Canada and the United States, exemplify this collaboration. Such partnerships can enhance regulatory effectiveness and assure safety across borders.

In conclusion, governments and regulatory bodies must take a multi-faceted approach to manage fish pollution effectively. Their responsibilities include establishing comprehensive regulations, monitoring water quality, enforcing compliance, researching impacts, promoting awareness, and collaborating internationally.

What Safe Alternatives to Contaminated Fish Are Available to Consumers?

Consumers can find safe alternatives to contaminated fish by choosing various options that maintain nutritional benefits while reducing exposure to harmful substances.

Farmed Fish
Plant-Based Seafood Alternatives
Shellfish
Algal Products
Canned Fish
Locally Sourced or Certified Fish

Exploring these alternatives provides consumers with choices that can enhance their diets while promoting sustainable practices.

Farmed Fish: Farmed fish refers to fish raised in controlled environments, such as ponds or tanks. These fish often have lower levels of harmful pollutants compared to wild-caught fish. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that farmed salmon, in particular, contains beneficial omega-3 fatty acids and is less prone to mercury contamination. However, the environmental impacts of fish farming must be considered, including issues related to water usage and waste management.
Plant-Based Seafood Alternatives: Plant-based seafood alternatives are products made from plant ingredients designed to mimic the taste and texture of fish. These alternatives offer healthy options without the risk of contaminants found in wild fish. A study conducted by the Good Food Institute in 2020 highlighted a growing consumer interest in plant-based seafood, noting a significant rise in market demand. Products like seaweed-based snacks and soy protein-based fish substitutes are examples of this trend.
Shellfish: Shellfish, such as shrimp, mussels, and scallops, can serve as safe fish alternatives. These species are generally lower in mercury compared to larger fish. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) encourages consumption of well-regulated shellfish, emphasizing their nutritional benefits, including high protein content and rich minerals.
Algal Products: Algal products, which include seaweed and spirulina, are gaining traction as nutritious seafood alternatives. Seaweed is rich in vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. According to a 2021 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), seaweed farming presents a sustainable option that helps reduce ocean pollution and enhance marine ecosystems.
Canned Fish: Canned fish, particularly light tuna and sardines, provides a convenient option free from high levels of contaminants. The FDA notes that canned light tuna contains lower mercury levels than fresh or frozen options. Canned fish is also shelf-stable and affordable, making it accessible to a wide range of consumers.
Locally Sourced or Certified Fish: Locally sourced or certified fish, such as those labeled with sustainability certifications like Marine Stewardship Council (MSC), can reduce contamination risks. These fish are often caught within regional waters and adhere to regulations aimed at protecting fish populations and marine environments. A 2022 study by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) reported that certified seafood has a lower risk of contamination, due to sustainable harvesting practices and reduced exposure to pollutants.

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